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التوقيع : رئيس ومنسق القسم الفكري

عدد الرسائل : 1500

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تاريخ التسجيل : 26/10/2009
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مُساهمة By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger

  By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger Heidegger
Martin Heidegger
(Undated photograph)
Introduction
Martin Heidegger (1889 - 1976) was a 20th Century German philosopher. He was one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th Century, but also one of themost controversial. His best known book, "Being and Time", although notoriouslydifficult, is generally considered to be one of the most important philosophical works of the 20th Century.
His outspoken early support for the Fascist Nazi regime in Germany has to some extent obscured and tainted his significance, but his work has exercised a deep influence on philosophy, theology and the humanities, and was key to the development of PhenomenologyExistentialismDeconstructionismPost-Modernism, and Continental Philosophy in general.
Life
Heidegger (pronounced HIE-de-ger) was born on 26 September 1889 in Messkirch in rural southern Germany, to a poor Catholic family. He was the son of the sexton of the village church, and was raised a Roman Catholic. Even as a child, he was clearly a strong and charismatic personality, despite his physical frailty. In 1903, he went to the high school in Konstanz, where the church supported him by a scholarship, and then moved to the Jesuit seminary at Freiburg in 1906. His early introduction to philosophy came with his reading of "On the Manifold Meaning of Being according to Aristotle"by the philosopher and psychologist Franz Brentano (1838 - 1917).
In 1909, after completing high school, he became a Jesuit novice, but was discharged within a month for reasons of health. From 1909 to 1911, he started to study theology at the University of Freiburg, but then broke off his training for the priesthood and switched to studying philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences. He completed his doctoral thesis on psychologism in 1914, before joining the German army briefly at the start of World War I, (he was released after two months, again due tohealth reasons). While working as an unsalaried associate professor at the University of Freiburg, teaching mostly courses inAristotelianism and Scholastic philosophy, he earned his habilitation with a thesis on the medieval philosopher John Duns Scotus in 1916.
In 1916, he came to know personally the Phenomenologist Edmund Husserl who had joined the Freiburg faculty, and who took the promising young Heidegger under his wing. In 1917, he married Elfriede Petri, an attractive economics student and Protestant with known anti-Semitic views, who would remain at his side for the rest of his life, despite the very "open" nature of the marriage. In 1918, though, he was again called up for military duty, and, although he managed to avoid front-line service for as long as possible, he did serve as an army meteorologist near the western front during the last three months of the war. Elfriede bore their first son Jörg in 1919; another son, Hermann, was probably extramarital.
After the end of the War, in 1918, he broke definitively with Catholicism, and returned to Freiburg as a (salaried) senior assistant to Husserl until 1923. He did not approve of Husserl's later developments, however, and soon began to radicallyreinterpret his Phenomenology. In 1923, he was elected to an extraordinary professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg, although whenever he could he made his way back to his "spiritual home" deep in the Black Forest, and he maintained a simple rustic cabin there for the rest of his life. During his time at Marburg, he had extramarital affairs with at least two of his students, Hannah Arendt (1906 - 1975) and Elisabeth Blochmann (1892 - 1972), both philosophers in their own right, and both Jewish (Arendt was later to achieve world fame through her commentaries on the evils of Nazism).
In 1927, he published "Sein und Zeit" ("Being and Time"), his first publication since 1916, which soon became recognized as a truly epoch-making work of 20th Century philosophy. The book made Heidegger famous almost overnight and was widely read by educated men and women throughout Germany. It earned him a full professorship at Marburg and, soon after, on Husserl's retirement from teaching in 1928, the chair of philosophy at Freiburg University (which he accepted, in spite of a counter-offerby Marburg). He remained at Freiburg for most of the rest of his life, declining offers from other universities, including one from the prestigious University of Berlin. Among his students at Freiburg were Herbert Marcuse (1898 - 1979), Ernst Nolte (1923 - ) and Emmanuel Levinas (1906 - 1995).
With Adolph Hitler's rise to power in 1933, Heidegger (who had previously shown little interest in politics) joined the Nazi party, and was elected Rector of the University of Freiburg (his inaugural address, the "Rektoratsrede", has become notorious). During this period, he not only cooperated with the educational policies of the National Socialist government, but also offered it his enthusiastic public support, helping to legitimize the Nazi regime with his own worldwide prestige and influence. One of the most prominent victims of his malicious, and often unfounded, denunciations was the Nobel Prize-winning chemist Hermann Staudinger. Heidegger technically resigned his position at Freiburg in 1934, and took a much less overtly political position thereafter, although he remained a member of the academic faculty and he retained his Nazi party membership until it was disbanded the end of World War II (despite some covert criticism of Nazi ideology and even a period of time under the surveillance of the Gestapo).
During the later 1930s and 1940s (sometimes referred to as "the turn"), his writings became less systematic and often more obscure, and he developed a preoccupation with the question of language, a fascination with poetry, a concern with modern technology, as well as a new-found respect for the early Pre-Socratic Greek philosophers. He himself always denied any "turn", arguing that it was simply a matter of going yet more deeply into the same matters.
At the end of the War, Heidegger returned to Freiburg to face the accusations of the French occupying force and the University's own denazification commission. He was summarily dismissed from his philosophy chair because of alleged Nazi sympathies, and forbidden from teaching in Germany from 1945 to 1951 by the French Occupation Authority. Despite his apparent lack of remorse, the ban hit Heidegger hard, and he spent some time in a sanatorium after a suicide attempt. When the ban was lifted in 1951, he became Professor emeritus at Freiburg and taught regularly until 1958, and then by invitation until 1967. With the support of some unlikely allies, such as the Marxist Jean-Paul Sartre and other existentialists, and, perhaps most puzzling of all, his Jewish ex-lover Hannah Arendt, he was almost completely rehabilitated as a major philosophical figure during Germany'sEra of Reconstruction after the War, although he never spoke out or publicly apologized for his war-time activities.
During the last three decades of his life, he continued to write and publish, although there was little significant change in his underlying philosophy. He divided his time between his home in Freiburg, his second study in Messkirch, and his isolated mountain hut at Todtnauberg on the edge of the Black Forest, which he considered the best environment in which to engage in philosophical thought.
Heidegger died on 26 May 1976, and was buried in the Messkirch cemetery.
WorkBack to Top
Heidegger's writings are notoriously difficult and idiosyncratic, indulging in extended word play, employing his own spelling, vocabulary and syntax, and inventing new words for complex concepts. This was partly because he was discussing veryspecifically defined concepts (which he used in a very rigorous and consistent way) but it does make reading and understanding his work very difficult.
"Sein und Zeit" ("Being and Time"), published in 1927, was his first significant academic work, and is considered by most to be his most important and influential work. It is a tour de force of philosophical reasoning, and all but hammered home the last nail in the coffin of the popular Phenomenology movement of his one-time teacher and mentor, Edmund HusserlHusserl was entirely convinced that he had discovered the undisputable truth of how to approach philosophy, and it was this (essentiallyHusserl's - and Descartes's before him - view of man as a subject confronted by objects) that Heidegger reacted against.
Heidegger completely rejected the approach of most philosophers since Descartes, who had been trying to prove the existence of the external world. More specifically, his rejection of Phenomenology came when he considered specific concrete examples in which the phenomenological subject-object relation appears to break down. One such example was that of an expert carpenter hammering nails, where, when everything is going well, the carpenter does not have to concentrate on the hammer or even the nail, and the objects become essentially transparent (what Heidegger called "ready to hand"). Similarly, when we enter a room, we turn the door knob, but this is such a basic and habitual action that it does not even enter our consciousness.
Thus, it is only really when something goes wrong (e.g. the hammer is too heavy, the door knob sticks) that we need to become rational, problem-solving beings. The existence of hammers and door knobs only has any significance and only makes any sense at all in the whole social context of wood, houses, construction, etc (what Heidegger called "being in the world").
Heidegger's main concern was always ontology or the study of being and, in "Being and Time", he asked the deceptively simple question "what is 'being'?", what is actually meant by the verb 'to be'. His answer was to distinguish what it is for beings to be beings ("Sein") from the existence of entities in general ("Seindes"), and concentrating on the being for whom a description of experience might actually matter, the being for whom "being" is a question, the being engaged in the world (“Dasein"). He further argued that time and human existence were inextricably linked, and that we as humans are alwayslooking ahead to the future. Thus, he argued, being is really just a process of becoming, leading him to totally reject theAristotelian idea of a fixed human essence.
Although Heidegger's initial analysis of humans as Dasein makes them sound rather like zombie-like beings moulded by society and culture and merely reacting to events, he then introduced the concept of authenticity. He made a sharp distinctionbetween farmers and rural workers, whom he considered to have an instinctive grasp of their own humanity, and city dwellers, who he described as leading inauthentic lives, out of touch with their own individuality, which in turn causes anxiety. This anxiety is our response to the apparently arbitrary cultural rules under which we, as Dasein, become accustomed to living out our lives, and Heidegger says that there are two responses we can choose: we can flee the anxiety by conforming even more closely to the rules (inauthenticity); or face up to it, carrying on with daily life, but, crucially, without any expectation of any deep final meaning (authenticity). The latter approach allows us to respond to unique situations in an individual way (although still within the confines of social norms), and this was Heidegger's idea of how one should live. For Heidegger, thisacceptance of how things are in the real world, however limiting it may be, is itself liberating.
Although often considered a founder of Existentialism, (mainly because his discussion of ontology is rooted in an analysis of themode of existence of individual human beings), Heidegger vehemently rejected the association, just as he had rejectedHusserl’s Phenomenology. However, his works such as "Being and Time" and "What is Metaphysics?" were certainly a biginfluence on Jean-Paul Sartre (and especially on his "Being and Nothingness", the title of which is a direct allusion to Heidegger's "Being and Time").
For Heidegger, genuine philosophy can not avoid confronting questions of language and meaning, and he maintained that the description of Dasein could only be carried out in terminology inherited from the history and tradition of Western philosophy itself. Thus, he saw "Being and Time" as just a first step in his grand overall project, which was to be followed by what he called the “destruction” of the history of philosophy (a retracing of philosophy's footsteps, and a transformation of its language and meaning). However, he never completed this second step, as he began to radially re-think his own views.
While his earlier work (essentially "Being and Time") was conceived as a very definite analysis of being which applied to all humans anywhere at any time, he later realized that the time or period in which people live fundamentally affects the way they live their lives. For instance, the ancient Greeks were much more rooted than moderns, and they had a much more naturalisticworldview; the medieval Christians believed that they were created creatures and that God's plan for the world could be discerned; modern society, on the other hand, sees itself as comprised of active subjects with desires to satisfy, and other objects were to be made use of. These different worldviews, therefore, create quite different understandings of just what it is tobe.
After the World War II, and Heidegger's so-called "turn", then, Heidegger began to write of the commencement of the history of Western philosophy, the Pre-Socratic period of ParmenidesHeraclitus, and Anaximander, as a brief period of authenticopenness to being. This was followed, according to Heidegger, by a long period, beginning with Plato, increasingly dominated by the forgetting or abandonment of this initial openness, occurring in different ways throughout Western history.
Although he had, at first, considered anxiety to be a universal experience, he realized that the Greeks did not experience it, and, for different reasons, neither did the medieval Christians. Modern society, however, with its technological, nihilistic understanding of being, leads to the kind of rootlessness and distress which causes anxiety. So, Heidegger believed that anxiety is very much a modern disease. Furthermore, he believed that modernity is a unique epoch of history in that we have an awareness of history itself, and we have essentially come to the end of philosophy, having tried out and discarded all the possible permutations of philosophical thought (what Heidegger described as Nihilism).
Heidegger's important later works include "Vom Wesen der Wahrheit" ("On the Essence of Truth", 1930), "Der Ursprung des Kunstwerkes" ("The Origin of the Work of Art", 1935), "Bauen Wohnen Denken" ("Building Dwelling Thinking", 1951),"Einführung in die Metaphysik" ("An Introduction to Metaphysics", 1953), "Die Frage nach der Technik" ("The Question Concerning Technology", 1954), "Was heisst Denken?" ("What Is Called Thinking?", 1954), "Was ist das - die Philosophie?" ("What Is Philosophy?", 1956), "Unterwegs zur Sprache" ("On the Way to Language", 1959) and "The End of Philosophy" (1964).

Language, always a major concern of Heidegger, became almost an obsession in his later work. In his view, language was not an arbitrary construct; nor was was it invented merely to correspond to, or describe, the outside world. For Heidegger, vocabulary (a sell as metaphors, idioms and the whole construction of language), actively names things into being, and can have a powerful and proactive effect on the world. For him, then, it was the poets, not the philosophers, priests or scientists, who were the vanguard of humanity and its hope for future development.
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رد: By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger
مُساهمة الإثنين مارس 07, 2016 9:36 am من طرف free men
  By Movement / School > Modern > Deconstructionism

Deconstructionism (or sometimes just Deconstruction) is a 20th Century school in philosophy initiated by Jacques Derrida in the 1960s. It is a theory of literary criticism that questions traditional assumptions about certainty, identity, and truth; asserts that words can only refer to other words; and attempts to demonstrate how statements about any text subvert their own meanings.

Although Derrida himself denied that it was a method or school or doctrine of philosophy (or indeed anything outside of reading the text itself), the term has been used by others to describe Derrida's particular methods of textual criticism, which involved discovering, recognizing and understanding the underlying assumptions (unspoken and implicit), ideas and frameworks that form the basis for thought and belief.

Deconstructionism is notoriously difficult to define or summarize, and many attempts to explain it in a straight-forward, understandable way have been academically criticized for being too removed from the original texts, and even contradictory to the concepts of Deconstructionism. Some critics have gone so far as to claim that Deconstruction is a dangerous form ofNihilism, leading to the destruction of Western scientific and ethical values, and it has been seized upon by some conservativeand libertarian writers as a central example of what is wrong with modern academiaRichard Rorty (1931 - 2007) has attempted to define Deconstruction as the way in which the "accidental" (or incidental) features of a text can be seen asbetraying or subverting its essential message.

Major influences on Derrida's thinking were the Phenomenologists Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger, although mainly in anegative sense (Derrida's early work was mainly an elaborate critique of the limitations of Phenomenology). He also claimed that Friedrich Nietzsche was a forerunner of Deconstruction in form and substance.

The development of Deconstructionism mainly took place at Yale University between the 1960s and 1980s, in a climate heavily influenced by the contemporaneous development of Structuralism and Post-Structuralism. In addition to Derrida, other Yale philosophers who had a hand in the development of Deconstructionism include Paul de Man (1919 - 1983), Geoffrey Hartman(1929 - ), and J. Hillis Miller (1928 - ).
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رد: By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger
مُساهمة الإثنين مارس 07, 2016 9:37 am من طرف free men
Aristotelianism is a school or tradition of philosophy from the Socratic (or Classical) period of ancient Greece, that takes itsdefining inspiration from the work of the 4th Century B.C. philosopher Aristotle.
His immediate followers were also known as the Peripatetic School (meaning itinerant or walking about, after the covered walkways at the Lyceum in Athens where they often met), and among the more prominent members (other than Aristotlehimself) were Theophrastus (322 - 288 B.C.), Eudemus of Rhodes (c. 370 - 300 B.C.), Dicaearchus (c. 350 - 285 B.C.), Strato of Lampsacus (288 - 269 B.C.), Lyco of Troas (c. 269 - 225 B.C.), Aristo of Ceos (c. 225 - 190 B.C.), Critolaus (c. 190 - 155 B.C.),Diodorus of Tyre (c. 140 B.C.), Erymneus (c. 110 B.C.) and Alexander of Aphrodisias (c. 200 A.D.).
Aristotle developed the earlier philosophical work of Socrates and Plato in a more practical and down-to-earth manner, and was the first to create a comprehensive system of philosophy, encompassing EthicsMetaphysicsAestheticsLogic,EpistemologyPolitics and Science. He rejected the Rationalism and Idealism espoused by Platonism, and advocated the characteristic Aristotelian virtue of "phronesis" (practical wisdom or prudence). Another cornerstone of Aristotelianism is the idea of teleology (the idea that all things are designed for, or directed toward, a final result or purpose).
Aristotelian Logic was the dominant form of Logic until 19th Century advances in mathematical logic, and as late as the 18th Century Kant stated that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference. His six books on Logic, organized into a collection known as the "Organon" in the 1st Century B.C., remain standard texts even today.
Aristotle's works on Ethics (particularly the "Nicomachean Ethics" and the "Eudemian Ethics") revolve around the idea that morality is a practical, not a theoretical, field, and, if a person is to become virtuous, he must perform virtuous activities, not simply study what virtue is. The doctrines of Virtue Ethics and Eudaimonism reached their apotheosis in Aristotle's ethical writings. He stressed that man is a rational animal, and that Virtue comes with the proper exercise of reason. He also promoted the idea of the "golden mean", the desirable middle ground, between two undesirable extremes (e.g. the virtue of courage is a mean between the two vices of cowardice and foolhardiness).
Aristotelian Metaphysics and Epistemology largely follow those of his teacher, Plato, although he began to diverge on some matters. Aristotle assumed that for knowledge to be true it must be unchangeable, as must the object of that knowledge. The universe therefore divides into two phenomena, Form (the abstract and unobservable, such as souls or knowledge) and Matter(the observable, things that can be sensed and quantified), and these two phenomena are different from, but indispensable to, each other. Aristotle's conception of hylomorphism (the idea that substances are forms inhering in matter) differed from that of Plato in that he held that Form and Matter are inseparable, and that matter and form do not exist apart from each other, butonly together.
Aristotle's theory of Politics emphasizes the belief that humans are naturally political, and that the political life of a free citizenin a self-governing state or "polis" (with a constitution which is a mixture of leadershiparistocracy and citizen participation) is the highest form of life. Aristotelian ideals have underlain much modern liberal thinking about politics, the vote and citizenship.
Although much of Aristotle's work was lost to Western Philosophy after the fall of the Roman Empire, the texts werereintroduced into the West by medieval Islamic scholars like Averroes and Maimonides. Just as these Muslim philosophers reconciled Aristotelianism with Islamic beliefs, St. Thomas Aquinas was largely responsible for reconciling Aristotelianism withChristianity, arguing that it complements and completes the truth revealed in the Christian tradition. It became the dominant philosophic influence on Scholasticism and Thomism in the early Middle Ages in Europe.
The distinctively Aristotelian idea of teleology was transmitted through the German philosophers Christian Wolff (1679 - 1754) and Immaneul Kant to Georg Hegel, who applied it to history as a totality, resulting in turn in an important Aristotelian influence upon Karl Marx.
The lasting legacy of Aristotelianism can be seen in the works of contemporary philosophers such as John McDowell (1942 - ), Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900 - 2002) and Alasdair MacIntyre (1929 - ).
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رد: By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger
مُساهمة الإثنين مارس 07, 2016 9:37 am من طرف free men
Logical Positivism (later also known as Logical Empiricism) is a 20th Century school of philosophy that developed out ofPositivism and the early Analytic Philosophy movement, and which campaigned for a systematic reduction of all human knowledge to logical and scientific foundations.
According to Logical Positivists, a statement is meaningful only if it is either purely formal (essentially, mathematics and logic) or capable of empirical verification. This effectively resulted in an almost complete rejection of Metaphysics (and to a large extent Ethics) on the grounds that it is unverifiable. Logical Positivism was also committed to the idea of "Unified Science", or the development of a common language in which all scientific propositions can be expressed, usually by means of various"reductions" or "explications" of the terms of one science to the terms of another more fundamental one. For more details, see the section on the doctrine of Logical Positivism.
The most important early figures in the development of Logical Positivism were the Bohemian-Austrian Positivist philosopherErnst Mach (1838 - 1916) and the Austrian Ludwig Wittgenstein (especially his "Tractatus" of 1921, a text of great importance for Logical Positivists).
The school grew from the discussions of the so-called "Vienna Circle" of Moritz Schlick (1882 - 1936) in the early 20th Century. A 1929 pamphlet jointly written by Otto Neurath (1882 - 1945), Hans Hahn (1979 - 1934) and Rudolf Carnap (1891 - 1970) brought together some of the major proponents of the movement and summarized the doctrines of the Vienna Circle at that time. The contemporaneous Berlin Circle of Hans Reichenbach (1891 - 1953) also propagated the new doctrines more widely in the 1920s and early 1930s.
A. J. Ayer is considered responsible for the spread of Logical Positivism to Britain, and his 1936 book "Language, Truth and Logic" was very influential. Developments in logic and the foundations of mathematics, especially in the "Principia Mathematica" by the British philosophers Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead, particularly impressed the more mathematically-minded Logical Positivists.
The movement dispersed in the late 1930's, mainly because of political upheaval and the untimely deaths of Hahn and Schlick. Logical Positivism was essential to the development of early Analytic Philosophy, with which it effectively merged.
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رد: By Individual Philosopher > Martin Heidegger
مُساهمة الإثنين مارس 07, 2016 9:38 am من طرف free men
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